Used with permission from Dr. Vicki Ritts, St. Louis Community College (Return to Mrs. Budd's Home Page) INFUSING CULTURE INTO PARENTING ISSUES: A SUPPLEMENT FOR PSYCHOLOGY INSTRUCTORS VICKI RITTS, PH.D.

Parenting Part II

EFE

Brief Overview of Efe Culture

The Efe are commonly referred to as Pygmies. The Efe, however, consider Pygmies to be pejorative. The Efe are foragers living in the North Eastern region of the Ituri forest of the Congo (formerly Zaire). They settle in transient camps in small areas of the cleared forest. Camp membership is approximately 20 individuals of extended families and a few visitors. The group is composed of brothers and their wives, children, unmarried sisters, and perhaps parents. The descent is patrilineal, but maternal relatives may live in camp because of sororl marriage exchange (i.e. exchanging brides across clans). Housing is leaf huts that are used for sleeping, food storage, and protection from the weather. They are arranged in a semicircle creating a shared communal space where most day to day in camp activities occur. In the Efe sharing and cooperation (e.g., food, work, child care) are essential values for their survival. The work load is high for all members and many camp activities are engaged in by both men and women. While both women and men forage, only males hunt. Overall, however, there is loose adherence to gender based activities. (Morelli & Tronick, 1991; Morelli & Troncik, 1992a; Tronick, Winn, & Morelli, 1985).

Parenting Practices

The Efe have a strong belief that mothers should not be the first person to hold the baby. This belief not only prevents Efe women from going off to have the baby on her own, but introduces the child to multiple care givers early. In fact, infants may be nursed by individuals other than mothers. The environment of the Efe is intensely social. The continuous presence of others in the camp provides the infants and toddlers with a diverse array of social contact with many individuals. Early multiple care giving helps prepare Efe children for their intensely social world and protects infants and children from common hazards of the physical environment. This type of pattern of social relationships is fairly typical for foragers (Bailey & Aunger, 1989; Bailey & Dvore, 1989; Morelli & Tronick, 1991; Morelli & Tronick, 1992a; Morelli & Tronick, 1992b; Tronick, Morelli, & Winn, 1987; Tronick, Winn, & Morelli, 1985; Winn, Tronick, & Morelli, 1989).

Father Involvement    

Fathers have an early presence in the child’s life. It is customary that fathers witness the birth from the doorway of the hut. Fathers and other males, when not hunting, are often present in the camp and watch the children from time-to-time. Infants are also held by males other than their fathers. The majority of the care of the children, however, is the responsibility of the mother (Morelli & Tronick, 1992a; Tronick, Morelli, & Ivey, 1992).

Summary

The Efe live an intensely social world where multiple care taking is the norm. This is an exception from most societies, and certainly from Western society. While there are multiple care givers the mother is still the primary care giver. Fathers are often present and help with the caretaking.

 

LATINO

Brief Overview of Latino Families

Latinos come from many different countries but are united by a common language. The literature often examines “Latinos” or “Hispanics” in general. While there are commonalities, there are also some differences. This section will first discuss the commonalities of Latinos and then discuss two individual cultures: Puerto Rico and Mexico.

Certain attitudes and family features are common to all Latino families. Familalism is one of the most prominent cultural values. Families emphasize sharing and cooperation rather than competition. A sense of family pride and loyalty is also nurtured (Delgado-Gaitan & Trueba, 1985). Extended family support is the norm (Levitt, Guacci-Franco, & Levitt, 1993). There is also a cultural value of “simpatia” which relates to famialism, loyalty, dignity, friendliness, politeness, affection, and respect for others. Parents emphasize the need for behaviors promoting smooth, pleasant social relationships and an avoidance of interpersonal conflicts (Delgado-Gaitan & Trueba, 1985).

The traditional role expectations for Latinos demand that men be virile, somewhat aggressive, and protective of women. Fathers are typically disciplinarians and mothers are involved in child-rearing. There is, however, more joint parental decision making than in the past (Garcia Coll, Meyer, & Brillon, 1995).        

Compared to the United States  there is typically stricter gender role stereotyping in Latino countries. All children, however, are expected to be calm, obedient, courteous, and respectful of adults. In Latino families discipline is often strict  (Diaz-Guerrero, 1975; Garcia Coll, Meyer, & Brillon, 1995).      

It was originally thought that Latino parents were more authoritarian than American parents. Today the belief is that Latino parents exhibit a broad range of parenting styles comparable to American parents (Julian, McHenry, & McKelvey, 1994).

 

PUERTO RICO

Brief Overview of Puerto Rican Culture

Puerto Rico is the most eastern and smallest of the Greater Antilles Islands in the Caribbean Sea. The language is Spanish and the ethnic backgrounds are Taino Indian, Spanish, and African. Formerly a possession of Spain, Puerto Rico was acquired by the United States following the Spanish American war. United States businesses in Puerto Rico and the mass media have been “Americanizing” influences on the Island. Economically, Puerto Rico is substantially poorer than the United States. Despite Western influences the perpetuation of Puerto Rican identity remains a strong value (Archilla, 1992).     

A strong sense of family and family loyalty has always been a central theme in Puerto Rican culture. Industrialization resulted in a population shift from rural to urban areas and the family became more nuclear. Despite these changes family unity and family interdependence are still an integral belief of the Puerto Rican family (Sanchez-Ayendez, 1993). Today while the family is still the core of existence there are more democratic marriages and households than in the past. Women now work outside the home more than they did in previous eras. Regardless of these changes, traditional gender roles still dominated Puerto Rican society. The male gender role is the “provider”, and the female gender role is the principle caretaker for the children (Archilla, 1992).

Parenting Practices       

Puerto-Rican parents value quiet and affectionate infants. A “proper demeanor” with the cardinal rule of respeto is important for Puerto Rican parents. “Proper demeanor” consists of the children being calm, obedient, and respectfully attentive to elders. Children learn early that if they lack proper demeanor they will find themselves outcasts and alone. The value of “proper demeanor” is in accordance with the sociocentric Puerto Rican culture emphasizing interpersonal obligations, personal dignity, and respect for others (Harwood, 1991; 1992; Harwood & Miller, 1991; Harwood, Miller, & Irizarry, 1995; Triandis, Marin, Lisansky, & Betancourt, 1984).        

Motherhood is central to the Puerto Rican female identity and there is a close mother-child bond. Women are the primary care givers and engage in most of the child-rearing (Archilla, 1992). Both mothers and fathers engage in disciplining the child.  After the child reaches age 2, discipline becomes stricter to achieve obedience and respeto. The Puerto Rican parenting style is characterized as authoritarian by western standards (Archilla, 1992).         

Child rearing practices in Puerto Rico are influenced by the sex of the child. While this may be effected by the parents’ education and social class, the female role is typically more restrictive and girls are socialized into a narrowly structured role. For example, girls are rarely  permitted to engage in aggressive behavior. Today, traditional cultural expectations are being challenged and strict adherence to gender roles is less demanding than in the past (Archilla, 1992).

Father Involvement        

Fathers are slightly more involved in parenting than they were in the past. The increased involvement may be a reflection of more women working outside of the home and a slight decrease in strict gender roles. While fathers are expected to be affectionate with children, child care is not viewed as their “responsibility”. Traditionally, fathers were the sole disciplinarian, but today they share that responsibility with mother  (Archilla, 1992; Roopnarine & Ahmeduzzaman, 1993).

Summary        

Motherhood is central to the female identity in Puerto Rico. Mothers are the primary care givers and  view this as their “responsibility”. Puerto Rican parents value quiet and affectionate infants with a “proper demeanor”. Children learn that “proper demeanor” is an essential of Puerto Rican life. Discipline by both parents becomes stricter after the child reaches age 2 in order to achieve the “proper demeanor”. While fathers are slightly more involved in parenting than in the past, child care is not seen as the males “responsibility”.

 

MEXICO

Brief Overview of Mexican Culture

Mexico has a rich cultural heritage of both Indian and Spanish ancestry. Mexico was a patriarchal society under the Spanish legal system. Traditionally children were wards of their fathers. Women only had rights over their children in extreme circumstances such as default of a natural or appointed male relative. The premise of Spanish family law was primarily unchanged until the late 19th century and was not significantly revised until the 1960s (Lavrin, 1991).     

Today in Mexican households there is still a traditional division of labor by gender. For example, girls help their mothers in the kitchen and boys help their fathers in the yard. In addition to the division of labor by gender, in Mexican culture adult males are “expected” to be dominant over adult females (Bronstein, 1994).      

Family was extremely  important in Mexican culture. Historically, extended families were a necessity because of both economic survival and to strengthen the family ties. Today, the family is still of extreme importance.       

It should be noted that as in other Latin American countries, the study of parenting in Mexico is extremely limited. In fact, much of what is known comes indirectly from studies of Hispanic families living in the United States (Bronstein, 1994) or is obtained from Mexico City and the surrounding areas. Thus, parenting practices in the larger population remain unstudied (Lavrin, 1991).

Parenting Practices         

In Mexican families the mother is the primary caretaker of the children. Typically, Mexican mothers are very affectionate especially to children under 3 years of age (Bronstein, 1994). While there appears to be defined roles for males and females, Mexican mothers did not differ in their treatment of children based on gender (Bronstein, 1988).        

Parental authority, children’s obedience, and respect for the parents are major values within the Mexican family (Diaz-Guerro, 1975). Both mothers and fathers discipline their children. In fact, discipline in Mexico and in the United States is quite similar. This is true for Mexican mothers (Solis-Camara & Fox, 1995; 1996) and Mexican fathers (Fox & Solis-Camara, 1997).

Father Involvement       

In traditional Mexican culture the male is the disciplinarian and his wife and children both respect him. The father’s role has been characterized by “aloof authoritarianism”. Recent research has shown that fathers in Mexico and in the United States are quite similar in their discipline style. In both countries, fathers from lower SES families were less nurturing and used more frequent and harsh discipline styles (e.g., spanking and yelling) than fathers from higher SES families (Bronstein, 1988; Mirande, 1988; Fox & Solis-Camara, 1997).       

Mexican fathers treat their children differently based on gender. Fathers often pay more attention to their sons, and are less punishing of their daughters (Bronstein, 1988).       

Despite traditional gender roles there has been some changes in the fathers role. Today, fathers are more involved with their children than in the past. The involvement, however, is typically physical and outdoor play (Bronstein, 1994). 

Summary 

Family loyalty and unity are highly valued in Mexico. Mothers are the primary caretakers of the children. Parents are authority figures and obedience and respect are highly valued and expected. Discipline in Mexico is similar to discipline in the United States. Fathers are not highly involved with their children, but do act as disciplinarian and play partner. Mothers do not appear to treat their children very differently based on gender. Fathers, however, pay more attention to their sons and are stricter with them than with their daughters.   

 

GERMANY

Brief History of German Culture

Germany represents a Western, highly industrialized country with a democratic government, that places a great value on social welfare and health systems. Germany is a performance-oriented society where nuclear families are the norm.        

Historically, children were incorporated early into adult roles and were not regarded as having special needs. Even young children were not the object of much intensive parental care. In the mid 18th century there was a shift in beliefs about children in the middle and upper classes. During this time children were regulated to special places in the home and separated from adults by special clothing and special activities. According to historians these practices served to distance parents and children even as parent-child relations intensified. In the working class, however, children were still incorporated into the adult world early to help with family survival  (Maynes & Taylor, 1991).           

Traditionally there were separate roles for males and females. Middle and upper class boys required some education. The goal was to raise sons who were self-disciplined, emotionally controlled, aware of boundaries between themselves and others, individualistic, and having high moral standards. Girls were raised to be willing and able to take on serious moral, emotional, and managerial responsibilities of organizing a house and raising children (Maynes & Taylor, 1991). Thus, throughout history there has been an emphasis on the early autonomy of children. This remains true today.     

It should be noted that many factors are effecting the changing German family. These influences include: age, education, employment, and religious commitment. For example, today more women are entering the workforce than ever before. Furthermore, in Catholic regions of Germany traditional roles are more important than in Protestant regions (Nickel & Kocher, 1987).

Parenting Practices      

In Germany mothers are the primary caretakers of infants and children. German parents value early independence and self-responsibility in their children. German parents have been found to be less affectionate compared to other cultures (e.g., Italian and French) (Best, House, Barnard, & Spicker, 1994).      

In Germany, “dutifulness” is a child rearing goal that has a high priority. Discipline is often fairly strict in order to instill this value (Maynes & Taylor, 1991).

Father Involvement        

As with other countries, research about father involvement was practically nonexistent until the mid 1970's. In the existing research fathers are more slightly more involved with their children than they were in the past. They are, however, still primarily play partners for small children  (Nickel & Kocher, 1987). They also participate in helping school aged children with their homework (Ishii-Kuntz, 1992). It should also be noted that compared to French and Italian fathers, German fathers engage less frequently in play behavior  (Best, House, Barnard, & Spicker, 1994).          

Gender of the child also plays a role in father involvement. German fathers tend to spend more time with their sons than with their daughters (Ishii-Kuntz, 1992).

Attachment    

The majority of research dealing with Germany and parenting has centered around the concept of attachment. As discussed in the Japanese section of this supplement attachment is typically defined as the emotional bond between a care giver and a child. Four different styles of attachment are delineated: secure, avoidant, resistant, and disorganized/disoriented (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters,  & Wall, 1978; Main & Solomon, 1990). Once again a major assumption about attachment in the United States is that secure attachment is the ideal mode of attachment. Various cultures, however, have different perspectives of “ideal” attachment and the Strange Situation procedure may not create a similar situation for everyone.

German parents value and promote early independence and self-reliance in their children.  Furthermore, they  believe that avoidant attachment is the ideal mode of attachment. German parents believe that “securely” attached infants are merely spoiled. It is not surprising that compared to the United States, more German infants respond in the “avoidant” category of the Strange Situation  (Keller, Miranda, & Gauda, 1984; Grossmann, Grossmann, Huber, & Wartner, 1981; Grossmann, Grossmann, Spangler, Suess, & Unzner, 1985; Wartner, Grossmann, Fremmer-Bombik, & Suess, 1994). Thus, attachment results often reflect values instilled in the children.

Summary      

German parents value early autonomy and self-reliance in their children. This appears to be a value that was instilled long ago and remains high today. With the emphasis on early independence it is not surprising that German parents are not very affectionate with their children. They also value respect and obedience and discipline is often used to obtain both of these goals. Fathers are not very involved or affectionate with their children. When fathers are involved with their children it is typically as a play partner. 

           

Israel

Brief Overview of Israeli Culture

Israel is a Westernized industrialized nation that is primarily Jewish. Israel is characterized by waves of mass migration. Israelis today are brought up with diverse values, ethnic, and religious influences. A major feature of Israeli life is a continuous threat to National security. Relationships exist between Israel and the U.S. and close personal communication between Americans and Israelis occur. Thus, Israel has adopted many current American attitudes (Sagi, Koren, & Weinberg, 1987).          

Traditionally, the family has always played a central part in religious and communal Jewish life. Today, there is still a strong emphasis on the family. Family centrality is still strongly preserved. Marriage is almost an absolute in the Jewish population. Divorce rates are fairly low (Sagi, Koren, & Weinberg, 1987).         

Males and females have assigned roles in Israeli society. Care of the children is considered a female domain while providing for the family and managing financial affairs is considered the male role. This is begin to change slightly with the increasingly large numbers of women entering the work force during the last few decades (Sagi, Koren, & Weinberg, 1987).     

Most of the research surrounding parenting issues have revolved around kibbutz life. Kibbutz members constitute only about 3% of the Israel population, yet the majority of research centers around this group (Sagi, Koren, & Weinberg, 1987).

Parenting Practices

The mother is the primary care giver. Mothers, similar to mothers in the United States, are more likely to vocalize, laugh, display affection, and hold infants more than fathers. Traditionally males were the decision makers with regard to family matters. Today, with the increases in the resources available to Israel, women in education, income, and occupational opportunities, women play a more active role in the process of decision making at home  (Sagi, Koren, & Weinberg, 1987).         

Both parents are responsible for disciplining the children. Mothers, more than fathers, use withdrawal of companionship as a control technique. This is true of both kibbutz and nonkibbutz mothers. Gender of the child plays a role in disciplining children. Parents are more punitive and strict with their sons than with their daughters. Overall, adolescents report that they believe that their parents are supportive (Sagi, Koren, & Weinberg, 1987).

Father Involvement         

The father’s role in the traditional Israeli family was the religious head of the family. That role strengthened and legitimized his pervasive authority. Today, it is a more modified view of the father and his authority has diminished slightly  (Sagi, Koren, & Weinberg, 1987).

Overall, Israeli mothers are more involved in infant and child care than fathers. Compared to the United States, Israeli fathers do not spend as much time with their children. Kibbutz fathers spend more time with their children than nonkibbutz fathers. There is also some evidence that Israeli fathers in the Kibbutz spend more time with their sons than their daughters (Sagi, Koren, & Weinberg, 1987).        

The gender of the child plays a role in paternal treatment. Fathers, compared to mothers, behave more nurturantly with their daughters than with their sons. Fathers are also more likely to use reasoning with their daughters when they misbehave (Sagi, Koren, & Weinberg, 1987).
        

There has, however, been an increase in father involvement. This is especially true among husbands of full-time working wives (Sagi, Koren, & Weinberg, 1987).

Attachment         

The majority of research dealing with Israel and parenting has centered around the concept of attachment. The majority of these studies have also been conducted in the kibbutz. As discussed in both the Japanese and German section of this supplement, attachment is typically defined as the emotional bond between a care giver and a child. Four different styles of attachment are delineated: secure, avoidant, resistant, and disorganized/disoriented (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters,  & Wall, 1978; Main & Solomon, 1990). Once again a major assumption about attachment in the United States is that secure attachment is the ideal mode of attachment. Various cultures, however, have different perspectives of “ideal” attachment and the Strange Situation procedure may not create a similar situation for everyone.          

In the traditional kibbutz there are communal sleeping arrangements in the “infant house”. After the infants are six weeks old they sleep in the “infant’s house” with a small group of infants and a professional caretaker.The mothers visit regularly and feed and bathe the infants through the first year. The mothers continue to be accessible to the infant during the day. During the night, however, two members of the kibbutz called “watchwomen” are the infant care givers. The “watchwomen” rotate shifts. Thus, at night even though there is an adult available to the infant they are often unfamiliar to the infant. Today, in many kibbutz communities, children do not live apart from their parents (Sagi et al., 1994)..       

Researchers employing the Strange Situation on kibbutz infants found that Israeli infants were often insecure-ambivalent in their attachments (Sagi, 1990; Sternberg & Lamb, 1992; van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg, 1988). On the other hand, nonkibbutz  infants with home based sleeping arrangements,  were securely attached (Sagi et al., 1994). With regard to later adjustment, both infants who are cared for by many responsive care givers and infants who are raised at home are equally well adjusted in later childhood (Oppenheim, Sagi, & Lamb, 1988).

Summary         

There is strong emphasis and value place on the Israeli family. The mother is the primary care giver of the children. There is increasing paternal involvement as more Israeli women work outside of the home. The gender of the child plays a small role in parenting. Parents are somewhat more punitive and strict with boys than with girls. Fathers, compared to mothers, are behave more nurturantly toward their daughters than their sons. The majority of research on Israeli families, however, has focused on attachment. It is important to remember that while only 3% of Israelis live in the kibbutz, the majority of research centers around this group.
 

NATIVE AMERICAN

Brief History of Native American Culture   

There are over 250 separate Native American societies. Naturally all tribes are somewhat different with regard to culture, customs, beliefs, and behaviors. It is always problematic to generalize across tribes. Nevertheless, some basic similarities are found among tribes. This section will first describe Native Americans and parenting. Finally, this section will focus on the Navajo parenting practices.       

The traditional Native American community is collective, cooperative, and has extensive noncompetitive social networks. Most aspects of life have spiritual significance, and there is an interdependence of spirituality and culture. Important traditional values include harmony with nature, respect for elders and traditional ways, centrality of family and tribal life, and cooperation (Coll, Meyer, & Brillon, 1995). Responsibilities for child-rearing are often shared among many adults including parents, extended family members, and other adults (Harrison et al., 1990). Children are treated permissively and there is less interference in the affairs of others and in the regulation of activities (Phillips & Lobar, 1990). Being part of a group and blending in are important virtues and children are not encouraged to assert their individuality. Patience is a virtue and Native American children do not seem competitive by the standards of the dominant society. Traditional Native American beliefs focus on “seeking the path of life” in the “here and now” and on “being” rather than on “becoming”. While steeped in cultural tradition, Native Americans are very present oriented (Griffin-Pierce, 1996; Harrison et al., 1990).). It is east to see that Native American values are often in conflict with the dominant culture.

Parenting Practices      

Children are treated permissively in accord with the belief in the inviolability of the individual, which emphasizes that no person has a right to speak for or to direct the actions of another person, and this includes children (Coll, Meyer, & Brillon, 1995). In order to shape children’s behavior adults may attempt to persuade, instill fear, embarrass, or shame children (Coll, Meyer, & Brillon, 1995). Native American children master self-care skills early and participate in household responsibilities at a young age. This helps to foster their sense of self-sufficiency and confidence. In accordance with traditional Native American values, children are taught to respect elders, cooperate with others, and are discouraged from asserting themselves and from showing emotion (Atwater, 1996).          

Child rearing activities may be aided by extended families. If the family resides on the reservation there is typically more of an extended family. If the family has moved off the reservation and resides in urban areas, the family is more nuclear (Joe & Malach, 1992).

The Navajo        

The Navajo is the largest tribe in the United States with reservations in Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah. Historically their economy changed from hunting and gathering to small-scale agriculture, and then to pastoralism. Today wage work, business enterprises, and professions have been added. An increasing number of Navajo are now living and working in cities and towns near or within the reservation  (Shepardson, 1995).

The Navajo is a matrilineal society. A Navajo belief is that the people were created from the “Changing Woman” who represents the season and the earth. Female and male children are equally welcomed. The extended family is typically composed of the father, mother, unmarried children, married daughters, and their husbands and children. Men and women share in the work of grazing, agriculture, and crafts. Women and men also have equal rights of inheritance (Griffin-Oierce, 1996; Shepardson, 1995).

Navajo Parenting Practices       

Infants are kept close to the mothers continuously. Infants can suckle on demand. The cradle board allows mothers to continue working while tending to their infants. This physical closeness continues until weaning and aids in the attachment process. While there is a strong mother-child attachment, the grandmother assists in raising the children (Phillips & Lobar, 1990; Shepardson, 1995).         

In the Navajo culture collective behavior is encouraged, but individualistic behavior is respected without punishment. The words t`a`a`bee bo`holni`i (“it’s up to him or her to decide”) combines the Navajo emphasis on autonomy and consensus. The belief in the inviolability of the individual plays a large role in the parents attitude toward discipline. Discipline is typically conducted by persuasion, ridicule, or shame. Corporal punishment is basically nonexistent. An adult or older child tends to divert the young child rather than use punishment (Phillips & Lobar, 1990).        

Navajo children typically do not ask permission to engage in certain behaviors. For example they eat when they are hungry and sleep when they are tired. To the majority culture, Navajo children appear to be “spoiled”.  The Navajo, however, believe that they demonstrate that they care for the children by respecting their independence (Phillips, & Lobar, 1990; Dehyle & LeCompte, 1994).        

Navajo children also begin to help with domestic chores at an early age. For example they begin herding the sheep as soon as possible (Phillips & Lobar, 1990).

Navajo Father Involvement       

The job of the Navajo father is to provide for his children and to serve as a role model. If the father is absent, then the mother’s brother assumes some obligations toward her children. Fathers and sons have a more direct relationship than father and daughter. Girls are more reluctant to approach their father and tend to use the mother as an intermediary (Phillips & Lobar, 1990).

Summary of Native Americans     

There are some generalizations that can be made among Native American tribes. Native American societies are typically collective, cooperative, and have extended family networks. Traditional values and beliefs about spirituality, respect for elders, and family guide the parenting process. Thus, children are typically treated permissively and taught to respect their elders, to cooperate, to be nonassertive, and not to display emotion.